WORD MEANING II (Semantics)

WORD MEANING II

DERIVATION

v   Derivation is the process of forming new words according to a (fairly) regular pattern on the basis of pre-existing words.

v   Derivation takes a word and changes it to another word, which is, creating new lexical entries.

v   Derivation adalah suatu proses pembentukan kata melalui penambahan affix (imbuhan), yang dapat berupa prefix (awalan) dan atau suffix (akhiran). Kata baru yang dihasilkan akan memiliki arti yang berbeda dari kata dasarnya.

v   Inflection does not change a word to another word.

v   The processes of derivation in more detail by noting that a step in a derivation is usually actually not one process, but three simultaneous processes, namely:

a.       A morphological process (e.g. changing the shape of a word by adding a prefix or suffix),

b.      A syntactic process (changing the part of speech of a word, e.g. from verb to noun),

c.       A semantic process (producing a new sense).

Example	Morphological Process	Syntactic Process	Semantic Process
Laugh: Laughter	Add suffix ter	Change verb to noun	Produce word denoting an act or an activity
Teach: teacher	Add suffix er	Change  verb to noun	Produce word denoting an agent
Red: redness	Add suffix ness	Change adj. to noun	Produce word denoting a property

v   Example of Derivation:

a.      noun: threefold= three_root + fold_suffix

b.      verb: enclose= en_prefix + close_root

c.       adjective: interchangeable= inter_prefix + change_root + able_suffix

d.      adverb: retell= re_prefix + tell_root

v   All the concievable syntactic changes  involving three major parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective) actually occur.

v   Semanticists have invented a number of classificatory labels for the various kinds of derivation found in language.

v   These labels include such term as inchoative, causative and resultative.

v   An inchoative  form denotes the beginning, or coming into existence of some state.

Example:

Dark (adjective) denotes a state. Darken (intransitive verb) as in The sky darkened is the corresponding inchoative form because it denotes the beginning of a state darkness.

v   A causative form denotes an action which causes something to happen.

Example:

Open (transitive verb) is the causative form corresponding to open (intransitive verb). If one opens a door, for example, one causes it to open (in the intransitive sense of open).

v   A resultative form denotes a state resulting from some action.

Example:

Broken (used as an adjective) is the resultative form corresponding to break (transitive verb). The state of being broken results from the action of breaking.

PARTICIPANT ROLES

BASIC CONCEPT

v   The common types of semantic roles in a simple sentence are a predicator and an argument.

v   The argument refers to referring expression in which it is corresponded to things, persons, etc.

v   Argument may have a participant role. It is depending on their role in a simple sentence

v   The function of the predicate is to describe the spesific relationship between the things, persons, etc. Referred to, i.e. to describe how things and/or people, participate in the particular situation described. 

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION

v   Participant roles is the roles played by the participant objects and people in a simple sentence

v   There are five types ;

a.       Agent

b.      Affected

c.    Instrument

d.      Beneficiary

e.       Location

AGENT

v   Agent is the person carrying out the action described.

v   The agent of a sentence is the person deliberately carrying out the action described.

Example:

a.       John opened the door.

      The participant role of John is as an agent.

b.      The president appointed a new minister.

The participant role of the president is as an agent.

AFFECTED

v   Affected is the thing, sometimes the person upon which the action is carried out.

v   The affected participant is the thing (not usually a person, although it may be) upon which the action is carried out, in many cases the thing changed by the action in the most obvious way.

v   Example:

a.   John opened the door.

      The participant role of the door is as an affected.

b.      The president appointed a new minister.

The participant role of a new minister is as an affected.

INSTRUMENT

v   The Instrument is the things by means of which the action is carried out.

v   The instrument is the thing (hardly ever a person) by means of which the action is carried out.

Example:

a.   John opened the door with the key.

      The participant role of the key is as an instrument.

b.   The Captain was killed by his own gun.

      The participant role of his own gun is as an instrument.

BENEFICIARY

v   Beneficiary is the person for whose benefit the action described by a sentence is carried out.

v   The beneficiary is the person for whose benefit or whose detriment the action described by the sentence is carried out. It is usually assumed that the Beneficiary, if mentioned, is distinct from both the Agent and the Affected.

Example:

a.       The gardener opened the gate for the students in the campus.

               The participant role of the students is as a beneficiary.

b.      The president sent the diplomat a compliment letter.

               The participant role of the diplomat is as a beneficiary.

v   We emphasize that participant roles, such as Agent, Affected and Instrument are defined semantically, in terms of the meaning of sentences, and not grammartically, in terms of position in sentences.

LOCATION

v   Location is any expression referring to the place where the action described by a sentence

v   The role of location is played by any expression referring to the place where the action described by a sentence takes place.

Example:

a.       The gardener opened the gate for the students in the campus.

               The participant role of in the campus is as a location.

b.      The president met a new governor in his office.

               The participant role of in his office is as a location.

v   Additional Examples:

a.       AFFECTED                    LOCATION  

Caesar was assassinated in Rome.

b.      AGENT        BENEFICIARY                               AFFECTED

Keith gave              Bill                       a replica of the Venus de Milo

c.       AGENT                      BENEFICIARY           AFFECTED

The terrorist sent       the prime Minister       a letter bomb